32 - /
Whatever corrections or improvements his scheme may be supposed to admit of, after longer observation and further examination into the frame and operations of our minds, one thing is certain that the result of his observations and reasonings must meet with entire approbation, as it places the highest virtue and excellence of a human character, where all sound Phi losophy and Divine Revelation has placed it, viz. In such habitual and prevailing exercise of all these good affections to God and man, as will restrain all other ap petites, passions, and affections within just bounds, and PREFACE.xvii carry us out uniformly to pursue that course of action, which will promote the happiness of mankind in the most extensive manner to which our power can reach *. And it must also be acknowledged, that our Author's doctrine, which asserts that we are laid under a real internal obligation, of a most sacred kind, from the very constitution of our nature†, to promote the good of mankind, tho' at the expence of sacrificing life itself and all its enjoyments, coincides, or at least is no way inconsistent with these precepts of Christianity, by which we are enjoined to lay down our lives for the
* Some seem to have mistaken our Author's doctrine so widely, as to imagine that he placed virtue in the mere sentiment or perception of moral beauty and deformity in affections and actions, which it is owned the worst of mankind may retain in a very considerable degree. Whereas he always places it in the exercise of these af fections and actions flowing from them which the moral faculty recommends and enjoins. Or in other words, virtue does not lye in the mere sentiment of approbation of certain affections and actions, but in acting agreeably to it.
† Some seem to have mistaken Dr. Hutcheson so far on this subject, as to imagine, that when he says we are laid under a most real and intimate obligation by the moral sense to act virtuously, he meant to assert that all other obligations from the consideration of the will of God, and the effects of his favour or displeasure in this
and in another world were superseded. Nothing could be farther from his thoughts; nor is it a consequence of his scheme. He was fully sensible of the importance and necessity of inforcing the practice of virtueupon mankind from all possible considerations, and especially from these awful ones of future rewards and punishments. If any one should say, that there is a natu ral sense of equity implanted in the human mind, which will operate in some degree even on those who know not that there is a God or a future state: it could not justly be concluded from thence, that such a person also maintained, that this natural sense of equity alone, was sufficient to ensure the uniform practice of justice, in all mankind, even when meeting with numberless strong temptations to depart from it. The application is so obvious, that it is needless to insist upon it.
xviii PREFACE. bretheren; while at the same time it gives us more just, more amiable and worthy ideas of human nature, as originally intended to be actuated by more disinterested principles, than these philosophers are willing to allow, who labour to reduce all the motions of the human mind to self-love at bottom, however much they may seem to be different from it at first appea rance. According to our Author's views of human nature, tho' these generous principles may be born down and over-powered in this corrupt state, by sensual and selfish passions, so as not to exert themselves with sufficient vigour, even when there is proper occasion for them; yet the intention of the Author of Nature is abundantly manifest from this important circumstance, that the moral sense is always so far true to its office, that it never fails to give the highest and warmest ap probation to every instance of truly disinterested virtue. The less suspicion there is of any view even to future fame in the behaviour of the martyr, the patriot, or hero, when he yields up his life in a worthy cause, so much louder and stronger is the applause of all spectators, and so far as any interested considerations are supposed to influence him, the approbation PREFACE.xix given to him is proportionably diminished: according to this representation of things, the soul of man, not only bears a resemblance of the Divine Intelligencein its rational faculties, but also of the Divine disinterested benignity in its social and public affections: and thus too our internal constitution, formed for pursuing the general good, beautifully tallies with the constitution of the universe: we see thro' the whole of Nature what admirable provision is made for carry ing on the general interests of all the species of living beings. So that it is quite agreeable to the analogy of Nature, that mankind, the highest order of creatures in this lower world, should be formed with dispositions to promote the general good of their species, and with a discernment that it is their duty to part with life itself, when a public interest requires it.33 - /
Besides these setts of lectures he gave a weekly one on the Sunday-evening, on the truth and excellency of Christianity, in which he produced and illustrated, with clearness and strength, all the evidences of its truth and importance, taking his views of its doctrines and divine scheme from the original records of the New Testament, and not from the party-tenets or scholastic systems of modern ages: this was the most crowded of all his lectures, as all the different sorts and ranks of students, being at liberty from their pe- PREFACE.xxxvii culiar pursuits on this day, chused to attend it, being always sure of finding both pleasure and instruction.
34 - /
2. The whole doctrine of dispensations was intro- The doctrine of Dispensation a- rose from the Ca- non Law.duced by the canonists, after many capricious, imprudent, and unnecessary laws were imposed upon the Christian world, with the worst designs, and yet it was often found necessary to free men from the obligation of them. By dispensation is understood „some act of the legislator exempting certain persons from the obligation of laws which extended to them as well as others:“ and always imports some abatement or derogation from a law.
35 - /
Wenn man indessen auch annehmen wollte, daß sein Lehrgebäude, nach einer längern und nähern Prü fung des Wesens, und der Wirkungen unserer Seele, in einigen Stücken eine Aenderung oder Verbesserung zuge lassen haben würde: so bleibt doch allemal gewis, daß alle seine Anmerkungen und Betrachtungen vollkommenen Beyfall verdienen, weil er die höchste Tugend und Vor treflichkeit eines Menschen eben darin setzet, worinnen sie, nach einer gesunden Philosophie und der göttlichen Offenbarung, bestehen soll, nämlich in einer so ferti gen und so beständigen Ausübung aller guten Neigungen gegen Gott und den Menschen, daß dadurch alls andre Begierden, Leidenschaftenund Neigungen in Schranken gehalten und wir angetrieben werden, nur solche Handlungen zu unternehmen, wodurch die Glückseligkeit des menschlichen Geschlechts auf die vollkommen ste Art, die in unsern Kräften steht, befördert werden kan.* Man mus bekennen, daß die Lehre unsers Verfassers, nach welcher wir, vermöge der Be
* Es scheinen einige die Leh re unsers Verfassers so unrecht verstanden zu haben, daß sie sich einbilden, er erfordere zur Tu gend nichts weiter, als die Em pfindung oder innere Wahrneh mung der sittlichen Schönheitund Häslichkeit in Neigungen und Handlungen, welche auch selbst die lasterhaftesten Men schen noch in einem ansehnlichen Grade behalten können. Er hat vielmehr allemal behauptet,
die Tugend bestehe in der Aus übung der Neigungen, und der daher fliessenden Handlungen, welche der moralische Sinn em pfiehlt und gebietet. Oder, um dieses auf eine andere Art aus zudrücken, die Tugend liegt nicht in der blossen Empfindungeines Wohlgefallens an ge wissen Reigungen<Neigungen> und Hand lungen, sondern darinnen, daß man dieser Empfindung gemäs handelt.
Vorrede. 15 schaffenheit unserer Natur,** wirklich in einer innerli chen geheiligten Verbindlichkeit stehen, das Beste des menschlichen Geschlechts, selbst auf Unkosten des Lebens und aller Freuden desselben, zu befördern, mit der Lehre des Christenthums, die uns gebietet, unser Leben für die Brüder zu lassen, entweder völlig übereinkommt, oder ihr doch nahe verwandt ist. Sie giebt uns zu glei cher Zeit richtigere, liebreichere und würdigere Begriffe von der menschlichen Natur, die, vermöge ihres Ur sprungs, darauf eingerichtet ist, nach weit uneigennützi gern Grundtrieben zu handeln, als diejenigen Weltweisen gestehen wollen, welche darau<daran> arbeiten, alle Regungen der menschlichen Seele einzig und allein auf die Selbst**Hutcheson ist hierinnen von einigen so übel verstanden worden, daß sie glauben; wenn er sagt, wir stünden, vermöge des moralischen Sinnes, in ei ner wirklichen innern Verbind lichkeit, tugendhaft zu handeln: so wolle er dadurch behaupten, daß alle andre Verbindlichkei ten, in Absicht auf den Willen Gottes, und auf die Wirkungen seiner Gnade oder seines Mis fallens in dieser oder in einer an dern Welt, überflüssig wären. Es kan aber von seiner Mei nung nichts so sehr entfernt seyn; und es fließt auch nicht aus seinen Grundsätzen. Er war zu sehr überzeugt, daß es eine wichtige und nothwendige Sache sey, dem menschlichen Geschlecht die Ausübung der Tugend, auf alle nur mögliche Art, einzuschärfen, und nichts
schien ihm hierzu so geschickt zu seyn, als die ehrfurchtsvolle Vorstellung künftiger Beloh nungen und Strafen. Wenn jemand sagte, es sey der mensch lichen Seele ein natürliches Ge fühl des Rechts eingepflanzt, das selbst bey denjenigen, wel che von Gott und einem künf tigen Leben nichts wissen, auf gewisse Art wirkt: so würde es unbillig seyn, hieraus zu fol gern, daß man dadurch be haupten wolle, dieses natürli che Gefühl des Rechts allein sey bey dem menschlichen Ge schlechte zu der gleichförmigen Ausübung der Gerechtigkeit hinlänglich, ungeachtet sich noch unzähliche starke Versuchun gen fänden, davon abzuweichen. Die Anwendung ist so deutlich, daß es unnöthig wäre, sich län ger dabey aufzuhalten.
16 Vorrede.liebe zu gründen, so sehr auch dieselben, gleich beym ersten Anblick, davon entfernt zu seyn scheinen mögen. Ob gleich diese edlen Grundtriebe, in diesem verdorbenen Zustand, durch sinnliche und eigennützige Leidenschaftendergestalt unterdrückt und überwältiget werden, daß sie sich nicht in der gehörigen Lebhaftigkeit äufsern<äussern>, selbst wenn die bequemste Gelegenheit dazu vorhanden ist: so ist doch, nach unsers Verfassers Begriffen, die Absicht des Urhebers der Natur aus dem wichtigen Umstande sattsam wahrzunehmen, daß das moralische Gefühl be ständig sein Amt so treulich verwaltet, daß es niemals einer wahrhaftig uneigennützigen Tugend den stärksten und innigsten Beyfall versagen wird. Je weniger Ver dacht vorhanden ist, daß der Märtyrer, der Patriot, der Held, wenn er sein Leben, in einer würdigen Sache, aufgiebt, einige Absichten dabey habe, wenn es auch nur der Nachruhm wäre; desto lauter und anhaltender ist der Beyfall aller Zuschauer; dahingegen derselbe sich so bald vermindert, als man dem Sterbenden den ge ringsten eigennützigen Bewegungsgrund schuld geben kan. Nach dieser Vorstellung der Dinge trägt die mensch liche Seele nicht nur in ihren Verstandeskräften das Ebenbild des göttlichen Verstandes, sondern auch in ih ren geselligen und auf das gemeine Beste gerichte ten Neigungen das Ebenbild der göttlichen uneigennützi gen Gütigkeit an sich. Solchergestalt ist zwischen der Beschaffenheit unsers Innern, welches darauf eingerich tet ist, das allgemeine Beste zu befördern, und zwi schen der Einrichtung des Ganzen die vollkommenste Uebereinstimmung. Wir finden in der ganzen Natur die bewundernswürdigste Sorgfalt, die allgemeinen Vor theile aller Gattungen lebendiger Wesen zu befördern. Vorrede. 17 Es ist also der Analogie der Natur gemäs, daß die Men schen, als die oberste Classe der Geschöpfe auf dieser niedern Welt, mit der Geneigtheit versehen seyn müssen, das allgemeine Beste ihrer Nebenmenschen vor Augen zu haben, und es für ihre Pflicht zu halten, selbst ihr Le ben dahin zu geben, wenn es ein allgemeiner Vortheil erfordert.36 - /
Ausser diesen Vorlesungen hielte er allemal des Sontags Abends noch eine über die Wahrheit und Vor treflichkeit der christlichen Religion, worinnen er alle Beweise von der Wahrheit und den wichtigen Vortheilen derselben deutlich und genau anführte, und den Zusammenhang ihrer göttlichen Lehren aus den ursprünglichen Zeugnis sen des neuen Testaments selbst, und nicht aus den par teyischen und scholastischen Lehrgebäuden der neuern Zei ten vortrug. In dieser Vorlesung hatte er die meisten Zuhörer, weil die Studirenden aus allen Ordnungen die sen Tag von ihren besondern Beschäftigungen frey waren, und derselben desto lieber beywohnten, je mehr sie über zeugt waren, daß sie Vergnügen und Unterricht fin den würden.
37 - /
2. Die ganze Lehre von den DispensatioDie Lehre von der Di spensation komt aus den canonischen Gesetzen hernen wurde von den Canonisten eingeführet, nach dem der christlichen Welt viele seltsame unvernünf tige und unnöthige Gesetze aus den niedrigsten Ab sichten aufgebürdet worden, und es gleichwohl oft nothwendig war, die Menschen von der Verbind lichkeit derselben zu befreyen. Durch die Dispen sation wird verstanden „eine Handlung des Gesetz gebers, wodurch er gewisse Personen von der Ver bindlichkeit der Gesetze, welche sich auf diese Per sonen eben so wohl, als auf andere, erstrecken, be freyet:“ und sie schliesset allemal eine Verminde rung oder Aenderung des Gesetzes ein.
38 - /
When men vow what is truly wise, and prudent, andpious and charitable, the omission of such offices be-comes more criminal after the vow; and thus by vowsmen may have deeper impressions made of their obli-gations to what is good and honourable; and may cre-ate in themselves a more firm abhorrence of what isevil, or of any negligence in their duty: and this isthe proper use of vows, to confirm every good and wiseresolution by solemn engagements in the presence ofGod.
39 - /
justice, mercy, charity, liberality, temperance,fortitude, succour, self-defence, execution of justice oncriminals, defence of our country in war.40 - /
These pleas of necessity some would exclude by amaxim of late received, We must not do evil that goodmay come of it. The author of this maxim is not wellknown. It seems, by a passage in St. Paul, that Chris-tians were reviled as teaching that since the mercy andveracity of God were displayed by the obstinate wick-edness of the Jews, they should continue in sin thatthis good might ensue from it. He rejects the impu-tation upon his doctrine, and hence some take up the contradictory proposition as a general maxim of great importance in morality. Perhaps it has been a maximamong St. Paul's enemies, since they upbraid him withcounteracting it. Be the author who they please; thesentence is of no use in morals, as it is quite vague and undetermined. Must one do nothing for a good pur-pose, which would have been evil without this refe-
* The enemies of revelation have triumphed foolishly on this subject; and some ofits friends have defended it injudiciously, by ascribing to it what is not its business.
TheRightsofNecessity. 133 rence? 'Tis evil to hazard life without a view to someChap. 17.good; but when 'tis necessary for a publick interest,'tis very lovely and honourable. 'Tis criminal to ex-pose a good man to danger for nothing; but 'tis justeven to force him into the greatest dangers for hiscountry. 'Tis criminal to occasion any pains to inno-cent persons without a view to some good: but forrestoring of health we reward chirurgeons for scarify-ings, burnings, and amputations. But, say they, „suchactions done for these ends are not evil. The ma-xim only determines that we must not do for a goodend such actions as are evil even when done for agood end.“ But this proposition is identick and use-less, for who will tell us next, what these actions some- times evil are which may be done for a good end?and what actions are so evil, that they must not bedone even for a good end? The maxim will not an-swer this question; and truly it amounts only to thistrifle; „you ought not for any good end to do whatis evil, or what you ought not to do, even for agood end.“41 - /
* The concubinage allowed in the Ro-man law, even after the Emperors wereChristian, must not be imagined as an al- lowance to married men to keep otherwomen. It was an allowance only to menwho had no wives, both before and afterthe empire became Christian, to enter intoa sort of marriage perfectly just according42 - /
X. The nearer degrees of consanguinity and affi-nity, Christians, and many Heathennations too, havealways looked upon as moral impediments of marri-age. The natural reasons commonly alledged scarceseem to have force proportioned to the great infamyand the notions of impiety attending such marriages.The most abhorred kind is that between the ascend-ing and descending degrees. Not only the inequalityof years, but the natural reverence in these relationsare very opposite to the equality produced by marri-age. But greater inequalities of years sometimes donot make marriages either immoral, or even impru-dent. And it is not every sort of reverence, due tohigher merit or authority, or gratitude due for thegreatest benefits, which would be inconsistent withthis relation, tho' that of parents seems inconsistent.'Tis scarce accountable without some natural instinctof aversion to such mixtures, how they have been so theStateofMarriage. 171 universally abhorred. A monstrous practice receivedChap. 1.by one sect in Persia, is no objection to this suppositi- on, which is confirmed by the sentiments of all theworld besides.
43 - /
XI. These are the impediments which make mar-The just causes of divorce. 1. A- dultery.riages from the first null and void, according to theChristian and civil law. We next consider the cau-ses of divorce, which frees one or both parties froma bond once valid. These are, as in all other contracts, the violation of any of the essential terms, either by the crime of one party, or by any such event as makes the party utterly incapable of the duties of that re- lation, when the other did not consent to be boundupon such events. 'Tis manifest that adultery in thewife is a just cause of divorce; so is also that of thehusband, since he engages to fidelity to the wife, ashe naturally ought to do, for reasons above-mention-ed. Nor ought the contract to be suspended upon thecondition of offspring surviving.
44 - /
XII. Were the corruptions of such as profess thebest institutions chargeable upon the institutions them- The original of corrupt laws a- mong Christians.selves, or their author, nothing could be more oppro-brious to Christianity than the laws received in manyChristian states, about fornication, adultery, and divor-ces. The Scriptures indeed recommend all purity ofmanners, and represent all contrary vices in their odi-ous colours, without any disguise: but in many Chris-tian states, fornication of the worst sort, the debauch-ing free citizens formerly innocent, by all frauds andperjuries, is no civil crime, unless force has also beenused; as if the laws allowed all who pleased to practiseall manner of lewdness. The ecclesiastick punishmentis a jest to those who have made tolerable advances inimpudence. Nor has adultery any proper civil penal-ties on either party. In some countries a pecuniary fineis sometimes given as a compensation of damages: noperson is incapacitated by such crimes, for any honoursor offices civil or military, or worse received in his pre-tensions to any station. And yet God and the world seeshow certain trifling ceremonies and modes are enjoinedby ecclesiastick laws, and adopted by the civil, the non-compliance with which, tho' from a principle of con-science, or some opinion that they are offensive to God,shall exclude a man from all hopes of preferment, orany reputable offices in his country.
45 - /
The original of these laws is easily found in history.The causes of them in history.During the early persecutions, some melancholy no-tions of sanctity in all sufferings, and of impurity inmany of our most innocent enjoyments generally pre-vailed. Worldly business was thought inconsistentwith the heights of piety, tho' piety is never moresincere and lively than when it engages men in all so-cial and kind offices to others, out of a sense of dutyto God: and* just philosophy, as well as religion,could teach that true devotion, tranquillity, resigna-tion, and recollection too, may be practised even in acourt or camp, as well as in a wilderness. But celi-bacy was early admired as sacred, and the chastestmarriage was reputed at best a state incapable of thehighest purity. The ecclesiasticks affecting to be ex-amples of perfection, both generally practised celiba-cy, and recommended it. When by the establishmentof Christianity they got access to wealth and power,they grew as corrupt as the layety; and yet, not torenounce their old known maxims, and to retain theirauthority and veneration with the layety, they mustkeep up this shew of sanctity, and of disengagement from the world, tho' contrary to the express doctrine of the apostles. Celibacy was enjoined on the cler-gy in some early councils, and these injunctions oftenrepeated in corrupt ages, while they were generallyframing one canon after another to prevent their in-famy by keeping concubines and whores, and with lit-tle success. Under such restraints from lawful en-
* See Marc. Antonin. in a variety of passages.
theStateofMarriage. 183 joyments, no doubt, much debauchery was secretlyChap. 1.practised by a corrupt generation, supported in easeand luxury: and by their artifices, in the eleventhand twelfth centuries, the ages of ignorance and su-perstition, the cognisance of matrimonial causes, andof all venerial crimes, was wrested from the secularjudges, and assumed by the spiritual. The punish-ments they appointed were some useless and often trif-ling pennances, and donations to ecclesiasticks. Theformer laws were too severe for their purposes. Adul-tery was the most convenient crime for such clergy,with less danger of discovery, and free from the chargeof maintenance to the spurious offspring. The proofrequisite for conviction must be made difficult, or al-most impossible; and all prosecutions must be discou-raged. The injured prosecutor must be restrainedfrom marriage, after divorce obtained upon the fullestproof. It must have been monstrous, and even shock-ing to a Popish nation, to have relaxed all penaltiesupon adulteresses and their gallants, without a likelenity to the adulteries of husbands. Thus the pu-nishments were made light to all. And the clergy wellknew their own superior advantages, by their reputa-tion for sanctity, and their access to great intimaciesby confession, and other religious artifices.