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After he had taught the private Academy in Dublin for seven or eight years with great reputation and success; in the year 1729 he was called to Scotland to be a Professor of Philosophy in the University of Glas gow. His established reputation for literature and worth was the only consideration that induced the University to elect him into the place vacant by the death of the learned and worthy Mr. Gershom Carmichael. The public approved of their choice, and the event abundantly justified the wisdom of it. The Professors were soon sensible, that his admission into their body had good effects both upon the reputation and inte PREFACE.xirests of the society. Several young gentlemen came along with him from the Academy, and his just fame drew many more both from England and Ireland. But it will probably be rather matter of surprize to the reader, that he accepted of the place, than that the University unsolicited made him the offer of it. If any one should ask, as it is natural to do, how it came to pass that a man of Dr. Hutcheson's accomplishments and virtues, and who could count such lists of honourable persons, and many of them of great authority and influence, in the number of his friends, should continue to teach a private Academy for seven or eight years in the heart of a country where there were so many beneficial places proper to be bestowed on men of genius and merit. Or if any one should ask, how it came to pass that he was permitted, to leave his country, break off all connections with his relations and friends, and in the midst of life remove to another kingdom to accept a place in an University far from being lucrative and very laborious? It is sufficient to answer to these questions: that it was not the want either of inclination or power in his friends to serve him that was the stop to his preferment. Hexii PREFACE. had private reasons which determined him neither to seek promotion, nor to encourage the most probable schemes proposed to him for obtaining it. It is but justice to his character to say, that he was useful and contented in that station in which it had pleased Di vine Providence to fix him, and that neither the love of riches, nor of the elegance or grandeur of human life prevailed so far in his breast as to make him offer the least violence to his in ward sentiments. To which it may be added, that the silent and unseen hand of an all-wise Providence which over-rules all the events of human life, and all the resolutions of the human will, conducted him to that station in life, which tho' far from being the highest in external distinction, yet was perhaps of all others the most suited to the singular talents with which he was endowed, and gave him the opportunity of being more eminently and extensively useful than he could have been in any other.
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He had observed, that it was the happiness and glory of the present age, that they had thrown off the method of forming hypotheses and suppositions in natural philosophy, and had set themselves to make observations and experiments on the constitution of the material world itself, and to mark the powers and principles which are discerned operating in it: he saw plainly that it was by adhering strictly to this method that natural philosophy had been carried to a greater degree of perfection than ever it was before, and that xiv PREFACE. it is only by pursuing the same method that we can hope to reach higher improvements in that science. He was convinced that in like manner a true scheme of morals could not be the product of genius and invention, or of the greatest precision of thought in metaphysical reasonings, but must be drawn from proper observations upon the several powers and principles which we are conscious of in our own bosoms, and which must be acknowledged to operate in some degree in the whole human species. And that therefore, one proper method at least to be followed in the moral science, is to inquire into our internal structure as a constitution or system composed of various parts, to observe the office and end of each part, with the natural subordination of those parts to one another, and from thence to conclude what is the design of the whole, and what is the course of action for which it appears to be intended by its great Author. He thought there was ground to hope, that from a more strict philosophical enquiry into the various natural principles or natural dispositions of mankind, in the same way that we enquire into the structure of an ani mal body, of a plant, or of the solar system, a more PREFACE.xv exact theory of morals may be formed, than has yet appeared: and a theory too built upon such an obvious and firm foundation as would be satisfactory to every candid enquirer. For we can be as certain of the several parts of our internal frame from inward perception and feeling, as we are of the several parts of an animal structure from ocular inspection: and we can as little doubt of the ends for which the principalparts at least of our internal constitution are intended, as we can doubt of the ends for which the members of our body, or our external senses were framed: and whatever evidence we have for the existence and perfections of the Supreme Being, we have the same evi dence that the moral constitution of our nature is his work, and thence we conclude, that it is most certainly his will, that we should cultivate that temper of mind, and pursue that course of life, which is most correspondent to the evident ends and purposes of his divine workmanship; and that such a state of heart and plan of life, as answers most effectually the end and design of all the parts of it, must be its most perfect manner of operation, and must constitute the du ty, the happiness, and perfection of the order of beings to whom it belongs.
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Our author has attempted in the following work, first to unfold the several principles of the human mind as united in a moral constitution, and from thence to point out the origin of our ideas of moral good and evil, and of our sense of duty, or moral obligation; and then to enquire what must be the supreme happiness to a species constituted as mankind are; and then he proceeds to deduce the particular laws of nature, or rules necessary to be observed for promoting the general good in our common intercourses with one another as members of society. How far he has succeeded, must be left to the judgment of the attentive and candid reader.
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Whatever corrections or improvements his scheme may be supposed to admit of, after longer observation and further examination into the frame and operations of our minds, one thing is certain that the result of his observations and reasonings must meet with entire approbation, as it places the highest virtue and excellence of a human character, where all sound Phi losophy and Divine Revelation has placed it, viz. In such habitual and prevailing exercise of all these good affections to God and man, as will restrain all other ap petites, passions, and affections within just bounds, and PREFACE.xvii carry us out uniformly to pursue that course of action, which will promote the happiness of mankind in the most extensive manner to which our power can reach *. And it must also be acknowledged, that our Author's doctrine, which asserts that we are laid under a real internal obligation, of a most sacred kind, from the very constitution of our nature†, to promote the good of mankind, tho' at the expence of sacrificing life itself and all its enjoyments, coincides, or at least is no way inconsistent with these precepts of Christianity, by which we are enjoined to lay down our lives for the
* Some seem to have mistaken our Author's doctrine so widely, as to imagine that he placed virtue in the mere sentiment or perception of moral beauty and deformity in affections and actions, which it is owned the worst of mankind may retain in a very considerable degree. Whereas he always places it in the exercise of these af fections and actions flowing from them which the moral faculty recommends and enjoins. Or in other words, virtue does not lye in the mere sentiment of approbation of certain affections and actions, but in acting agreeably to it.
† Some seem to have mistaken Dr. Hutcheson so far on this subject, as to imagine, that when he says we are laid under a most real and intimate obligation by the moral sense to act virtuously, he meant to assert that all other obligations from the consideration of the will of God, and the effects of his favour or displeasure in this
and in another world were superseded. Nothing could be farther from his thoughts; nor is it a consequence of his scheme. He was fully sensible of the importance and necessity of inforcing the practice of virtueupon mankind from all possible considerations, and especially from these awful ones of future rewards and punishments. If any one should say, that there is a natu ral sense of equity implanted in the human mind, which will operate in some degree even on those who know not that there is a God or a future state: it could not justly be concluded from thence, that such a person also maintained, that this natural sense of equity alone, was sufficient to ensure the uniform practice of justice, in all mankind, even when meeting with numberless strong temptations to depart from it. The application is so obvious, that it is needless to insist upon it.
xviii PREFACE. bretheren; while at the same time it gives us more just, more amiable and worthy ideas of human nature, as originally intended to be actuated by more disinterested principles, than these philosophers are willing to allow, who labour to reduce all the motions of the human mind to self-love at bottom, however much they may seem to be different from it at first appea rance. According to our Author's views of human nature, tho' these generous principles may be born down and over-powered in this corrupt state, by sensual and selfish passions, so as not to exert themselves with sufficient vigour, even when there is proper occasion for them; yet the intention of the Author of Nature is abundantly manifest from this important circumstance, that the moral sense is always so far true to its office, that it never fails to give the highest and warmest ap probation to every instance of truly disinterested virtue. The less suspicion there is of any view even to future fame in the behaviour of the martyr, the patriot, or hero, when he yields up his life in a worthy cause, so much louder and stronger is the applause of all spectators, and so far as any interested considerations are supposed to influence him, the approbation PREFACE.xix given to him is proportionably diminished: according to this representation of things, the soul of man, not only bears a resemblance of the Divine Intelligencein its rational faculties, but also of the Divine disinterested benignity in its social and public affections: and thus too our internal constitution, formed for pursuing the general good, beautifully tallies with the constitution of the universe: we see thro' the whole of Nature what admirable provision is made for carry ing on the general interests of all the species of living beings. So that it is quite agreeable to the analogy of Nature, that mankind, the highest order of creatures in this lower world, should be formed with dispositions to promote the general good of their species, and with a discernment that it is their duty to part with life itself, when a public interest requires it.20 - /
† Some seem to have mistaken Dr. Hutcheson so far on this subject, as to imagine, that when he says we are laid under a most real and intimate obligation by the moral sense to act virtuously, he meant to assert that all other obligations from the consideration of the will of God, and the effects of his favour or displeasure in this21 - /
Whatever corrections or improvements his scheme may be supposed to admit of, after longer observation and further examination into the frame and operations of our minds, one thing is certain that the result of his observations and reasonings must meet with entire approbation, as it places the highest virtue and excellence of a human character, where all sound Phi losophy and Divine Revelation has placed it, viz. In such habitual and prevailing exercise of all these good affections to God and man, as will restrain all other ap petites, passions, and affections within just bounds, and PREFACE.xvii carry us out uniformly to pursue that course of action, which will promote the happiness of mankind in the most extensive manner to which our power can reach *. And it must also be acknowledged, that our Author's doctrine, which asserts that we are laid under a real internal obligation, of a most sacred kind, from the very constitution of our nature†, to promote the good of mankind, tho' at the expence of sacrificing life itself and all its enjoyments, coincides, or at least is no way inconsistent with these precepts of Christianity, by which we are enjoined to lay down our lives for the
* Some seem to have mistaken our Author's doctrine so widely, as to imagine that he placed virtue in the mere sentiment or perception of moral beauty and deformity in affections and actions, which it is owned the worst of mankind may retain in a very considerable degree. Whereas he always places it in the exercise of these af fections and actions flowing from them which the moral faculty recommends and enjoins. Or in other words, virtue does not lye in the mere sentiment of approbation of certain affections and actions, but in acting agreeably to it.
† Some seem to have mistaken Dr. Hutcheson so far on this subject, as to imagine, that when he says we are laid under a most real and intimate obligation by the moral sense to act virtuously, he meant to assert that all other obligations from the consideration of the will of God, and the effects of his favour or displeasure in this
and in another world were superseded. Nothing could be farther from his thoughts; nor is it a consequence of his scheme. He was fully sensible of the importance and necessity of inforcing the practice of virtueupon mankind from all possible considerations, and especially from these awful ones of future rewards and punishments. If any one should say, that there is a natu ral sense of equity implanted in the human mind, which will operate in some degree even on those who know not that there is a God or a future state: it could not justly be concluded from thence, that such a person also maintained, that this natural sense of equity alone, was sufficient to ensure the uniform practice of justice, in all mankind, even when meeting with numberless strong temptations to depart from it. The application is so obvious, that it is needless to insist upon it.
xviii PREFACE. bretheren; while at the same time it gives us more just, more amiable and worthy ideas of human nature, as originally intended to be actuated by more disinterested principles, than these philosophers are willing to allow, who labour to reduce all the motions of the human mind to self-love at bottom, however much they may seem to be different from it at first appea rance. According to our Author's views of human nature, tho' these generous principles may be born down and over-powered in this corrupt state, by sensual and selfish passions, so as not to exert themselves with sufficient vigour, even when there is proper occasion for them; yet the intention of the Author of Nature is abundantly manifest from this important circumstance, that the moral sense is always so far true to its office, that it never fails to give the highest and warmest ap probation to every instance of truly disinterested virtue. The less suspicion there is of any view even to future fame in the behaviour of the martyr, the patriot, or hero, when he yields up his life in a worthy cause, so much louder and stronger is the applause of all spectators, and so far as any interested considerations are supposed to influence him, the approbation PREFACE.xix given to him is proportionably diminished: according to this representation of things, the soul of man, not only bears a resemblance of the Divine Intelligencein its rational faculties, but also of the Divine disinterested benignity in its social and public affections: and thus too our internal constitution, formed for pursuing the general good, beautifully tallies with the constitution of the universe: we see thro' the whole of Nature what admirable provision is made for carry ing on the general interests of all the species of living beings. So that it is quite agreeable to the analogy of Nature, that mankind, the highest order of creatures in this lower world, should be formed with dispositions to promote the general good of their species, and with a discernment that it is their duty to part with life itself, when a public interest requires it.22 - /
But Dr. Hutcheson's character, as a man of parts and learning, does not depend merely on the peculi arities of a scheme of morals. His knowledge was by no means confined to his own system: that he was well acquainted with the writings both of the anci ents and moderns relative to morality, religion, and government will appear evident to every one who per- xx PREFACE. uses the following work. Nor did the study of morals, even in this extensive view, engross his whole time and attention. An ardent love of knowledge was natural to him. He loved truth, and sought after it with impartiality and constancy. His apprehension was quick and his memory strong: he was not only patient of thought and enquiry, but delighted in it. His mind was never subject to that languor which frequently interrupts the studies of worthy men: his faculties were always at his command and ready for exercise. A mind endowed and disposed in such a manner, and employed in study for a long course of years, must have been furnished with a large compass of knowledge.
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In the earlier part of his life he entered deeply in to the spirit of the ancients, and was soon sensible of and admired that justness and simplicity both of thought and expression which has preserved and distinguished their writings to this day. He read the historians, poets, and orators of antiquity with a kind of enthusiasm, and at the same time with a critical exactness. He had read the poets especially so often, that he retained large passages of them in his memory, which he frequently and elegantly applied to the subjects he PREFACE.xxi had occasion to treat in the course of his prelections. His knowledge and taste in Latin appears from what he has wrote in it. His Synopsis of Metaphysics, Pneumatics, Natural Theology, and his Compend of Ethics are written with a spirit and purity of style seldom to be met with in modern Latin compositions.
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He had studied all the parts of Philosophy with such care as to have attained clear and comprehensive views of them. He composed a small treatise of Logic, which tho' not designed for the public eye, yet gives sufficient proof how much he was master of that science. It appears from his treatise of Metaphysics, that he was well acquainted with the logomachies,meaningless questions, and trivial debates of the old Scholastics, which had thrown a thick darkness on that part of Philosophy: he has set that branch of knowledge in a clear light, and rendered it instructive and entertaining. He understood Natural Philosophy as it is now improved by the assistance of Mathematics and experiments, and applied his knowledge of it to the noble purposes of establishing the grand truths of the existence, the perfections, and government of God. He was well acquainted with the history of the artsxxii PREFACE. and sciences: he had carefully traced them from their origin, thro' all their various improvements, progresses, interruptions, and revolutions, and marked the characters of the most remarkable Philosophers, and the distin guishing doctrines and peculiar genius of their Philoso phy. Besides he knew the civil and ecclesiastical history both of antient and modern times with an exactness that was surprizingin one so much conversant in deeper and severer studies. He had studied too the original language of the Old Testament, and tho' his other necessary studies had not permitted him to become a critic in it himself, yet he knew the most important criticisms of the learned in that way.
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His great capacity appeared in the strongest light, in his conversation with his friends; there he discovered such a readiness of thought, clearness of expression, and extent of knowledge, on almost every subject that could be started, as gave delight to all who heard him. There are some men who have amassed great stores of learning, but it is reposited as it were in some corner of the mind, and requires time to recollect it and bring it forth. In others you see their great erudition seems to darken their conceptions and PREFACE.xxiii disturb their views of things, by the different ideas which crowd into their minds at once. But the whole compass of his knowledge lay as it were always before him, and was at his command at all times; and hesaw at once whatever was connected with his present subject, and rejected what did not belong to it. He spoke on the most difficult and abstruse subjects without any labour and with a degree of perspicuity which would have cost other men of no mean parts repeated efforts, without equal success: he exposed and took to pieces deceitful reasonings with the greatest faci lity; and distinguished at once, betwixt true learningand false, betwixt subjects which admit of demonstration, and such as do not, and betwixt questions which are useful and important, and such as are only curious and amusing. He gave an habitual attention to the real uses to which knowledge could be applied in life. He did not chuse to amuse with insignificant speculations, but in all his enquiries having the real good and utility of mankind in view, he took occasion even from metaphysical disputes, (of which no other use could be made) to repress that pride and vanity that is apt to puff up young minds from a notion of their xxiv PREFACE. superior knowledge, by shewing how uncapable the acutest of mankind are of penetrating into the inti mate nature and essences of things.
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These singular abilities and talents were united in Dr. Hutcheson with the most amiable dispositions and most useful virtues: the purity of his manners was unspotted from his youth: as he always exprest the high est indignation against vice, he kept at the greatest distance from it, avoiding even the smallest indecencies of conduct: but this severity of virtue was without any thing of that sourness, stiffness, or unsociableness which sometimes accompanies it, and renders characters, otherwise valuable, in some respects disagreeable, and prevents the good effects that the exam ple of their virtues might produce upon others. His integrity was strict and inviolable: he abhorred the least appearance of deceit either in word or action: he contemned those little artifices which too frequently pass in the world for laudable arts of address, and proofs of superior prudence: his nature was frank, and open, and warmly disposed, to speak what he took to be true: you saw at first sight his sincere and upright soul, and in all further intercourse with him you found PREFACE.xxv him always the same. He was all benevolence and affection; none who saw him could doubt of it; his air and countenance bespoke it. It was to such a degree his prevailing temper, that it gave a tincture to his writings, which were perhaps as much dictated by his heart as his head: and if there was any need of an apology for the stress that in his scheme seems to be laid upon the friendly and public affections, the prevalence of them in his own temper would at least form an amiable one.
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His heart was finely turned for friendship; he was sparing indeed of the external professions of it, but liberal of its most important offices: he was the refuge of his friends for advice and assistance in all cases of perplexity and distress. The ardor of his affection for his friends got the better of a natural reluctance he had to ask favours, which no regard for his own interests could have overcome: his kind offices were far from being confined to the circle of his particular friends and relations; his heart overflowed with goodwill to all around him, and prompted him to embrace every opportunity of doing kind and obliging things. Tho' there are but few to be found who had such a xxvi PREFACE. keen thirst for knowledge, or who pursued it with such unremitting attention and vigour; yet even this tasteyielded on all occasions to the more important one of doing good. Among many other acts of beneficence, he took a peculiar delight in assisting worthy young men, in straitened circumstances, to prosecute their studies with his money, and admitting them to attend his colleges without paying the customary fees.
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A remarkable degree of a rational enthusiasm for the interests of learning, liberty, religion,virtue, and human happiness, which animated him at all times, was a distinguishing part of his character: he was visibly moved by some of these noble principles in whatever he said or did. They had such an ascendency over him as gave a peculiar cast to his whole conversation and behaviour, and formed in him a public spirit of a very extensive kind. Public spirit in him was not a vague and undetermined kind of ardor, for somethingunknown or not distinctly understood; but it was an enlightened and universal zeal for every branch of human happiness, and the means of promoting it. His love of valuable knowledge, his unabating activity in pursuing it and spreading a taste for it, fitted him, in a PREFACE.xxvii very singular manner, for that station which Providence had assigned him. And perhaps very few men, even in similar stations, have discovered equal zeal, or had equal success, in promoting a taste for true literature: but his zeal was not confined to what peculiarly belonged to his own profession, but extended to every thing that could contribute to the improvement of human life. When he spoke, you would have imagined that he had been employed in almost all the dif ferent stations in society, so clearly did he appear to understand the interests of each, and such an earnest desire did he express for promoting them. His benevolent heart took great delight in planning schemes for rectifying something amiss, or improving something already right, in the different orders and ranks of mankind. These schemes were not airy and romantic, but such as were practicable, and might have deserved the attention of those whose power and influence in society could have enabled them to carry them into execution. This warm zeal for public good appeared uppermost in his thoughts not only in his more serious, but also in his gayer hours. But while he abounded in projects for the interests of others, none xxviii PREFACE. ever heard of one which centered in himself. It has already been observed, that in the earlier part of life, when the taste for external enjoyments is commonly strongest, he did not listen to proposals which offered prospects of rising to wealth and preferment: in a more advanced age, but when he was still in such a vigorous state of health, as he might have hoped for many years longer of life, he had offers made of removing him to the University of Edinburgh, to be Professor of Moral Philosophy there, which might have been a more lucrative place to him, and given him better opportunities of forming connections with people of the first rank and distinction in this country, but he was contented with his present situation, and discouraged all attempts to change it.
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A remarkable degree of a rational enthusiasm for the interests of learning, liberty, religion,virtue, and human happiness, which animated him at all times, was a distinguishing part of his character: he was visibly moved by some of these noble principles in whatever he said or did. They had such an ascendency over him as gave a peculiar cast to his whole conversation and behaviour, and formed in him a public spirit of a very extensive kind. Public spirit in him was not a vague and undetermined kind of ardor, for somethingunknown or not distinctly understood; but it was an enlightened and universal zeal for every branch of human happiness, and the means of promoting it. His love of valuable knowledge, his unabating activity in pursuing it and spreading a taste for it, fitted him, in a PREFACE.xxvii very singular manner, for that station which Providence had assigned him. And perhaps very few men, even in similar stations, have discovered equal zeal, or had equal success, in promoting a taste for true literature: but his zeal was not confined to what peculiarly belonged to his own profession, but extended to every thing that could contribute to the improvement of human life. When he spoke, you would have imagined that he had been employed in almost all the dif ferent stations in society, so clearly did he appear to understand the interests of each, and such an earnest desire did he express for promoting them. His benevolent heart took great delight in planning schemes for rectifying something amiss, or improving something already right, in the different orders and ranks of mankind. These schemes were not airy and romantic, but such as were practicable, and might have deserved the attention of those whose power and influence in society could have enabled them to carry them into execution. This warm zeal for public good appeared uppermost in his thoughts not only in his more serious, but also in his gayer hours. But while he abounded in projects for the interests of others, none xxviii PREFACE. ever heard of one which centered in himself. It has already been observed, that in the earlier part of life, when the taste for external enjoyments is commonly strongest, he did not listen to proposals which offered prospects of rising to wealth and preferment: in a more advanced age, but when he was still in such a vigorous state of health, as he might have hoped for many years longer of life, he had offers made of removing him to the University of Edinburgh, to be Professor of Moral Philosophy there, which might have been a more lucrative place to him, and given him better opportunities of forming connections with people of the first rank and distinction in this country, but he was contented with his present situation, and discouraged all attempts to change it.
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He had a full persuasion and warm sense of the great truths of natural and revealedreligion, and of the im portance of just and rational devotion to the happi xxx PREFACE.ness of human life, and to the stability and purity of a virtuous character. The power of devout sentiments over his mind appeared in his conversation: in his public prelections he frequently took occasion from any hints which his subject afforded him, as well as when it was the direct subject itself, to run out at great length, and with great ardor, on the reasonableness and advantages of habitual regards to God, and of referring all our talents, virtues, and enjoyments to his bounty. Such habitual references appeared to him the surest means of checking those emotions of pride, vain complacency, and self-applause, which are apt to spring up in the minds of those, who do not seriously and frequently reflect, that they did not make themselves to differ from others, and that they have nothing but what they received. Such sentiments deeply rooted in the mind, he looked upon as the proper foundation of that simplicity of heart and life, which is the highest perfection of a virtuous character.